HOW MANY OF CASES & UNITS OF ANALYSIS IN CASE STUDY

1)    Case – represents somehow the interesting topic of the study empirically (e.g. the role of the United States in the world economy)
2)    Unit of analysis – is the actual source of information: individual, organizational document, artifact, for example (e.g. the capital flow between countries, an economic policy)

1)    Cases:
A) Single cases – if case seems to represent a critical test to existing theory; rare or unique events -> Important to select case & unit of analysis properly
B) Multiple cases – if a “replication logic” is supposed to reveal support for theoretically
   Similar results
   Contrasting results for predictable reasons
-> Theoretical framework must identify clearly the conditions, when a particular phenomenon is likely to be found (i.) and when it is not likely (ii.)
-> Theoretical framework is the vehicle for generalizing to new cases; if empirical cases do not work as predicted, modifications must be made to the theory
-> Number of case replications depends upon the certainty wanted to achieve & richness of the underlying theoretical propositions

2) Units of analysis:
A) Holistic designs – include a single unit of analysis; if aim is to study the global nature of the phenomenon; when no logical sub-units can be pointed -> danger of abstractness
B) Embedded designs – include multiple units of analysis; study may include main & smaller units on different levels -> looking for consistent patterns of evidence across units, but within a case

Note: The flexibility of case study design is in selecting cases different from those initially identified, not in changing the purpose or objectives of the study to suit the cases

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CASE STUDY RESEARCH DESIGN

Central components of a case study design & their functions:
1)    A study’s questions – “how”, “why”
2)    Study’s (theoretical) propositions – pointing attention, limiting scope, suggesting possible links between phenomena
3)    Study’s units of analysis – main units must be at the same level as the study questions & typically comparable to those previously studied
4)    Logic linking the data to the propositions – matching pieces of information to rival patterns that can be derived from the propositions
5)    Criteria for interpreting the findings – iteration between propositions and data, matching sufficiently contrasting rival patterns to data; there is no precise way of setting the criteria
Research design links the data to be collected and conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions of the study – it provides a conceptual framework & an action plan for getting from questions to set of conclusions.

Preliminary theory & blueprint of the study: having solved the five steps mentioned above leads to the formation of a loose theory & a blueprint related to the topic of study
-Initial theory & understanding of what is being studied is necessary before any field contacts; the complete research design embodies a “theory” of what is being studied

Deciding between explanatory, exploratory and descriptive designs:
-Depends on the richness of the rival propositions in theories related to the topic of the study; richest theories allow explanatory designs
-> Search for theoretical propositions that can be elaborated to cover study questions, propositions, units of analysis, data-proposition links & criteria of interpretation
-> Reviewing literature, discussing with investigators, asking challenging questions, thinking what is to be learned from the study
-> Being aware of the range of theories & selecting the required level (individual, organization, societal)
-> Construction of the design / conceptual framework takes time & can be difficult, but is a crucial step for the success of the study

Selection of the cases:
-Cases should be selected in the same way as the topic of an experiment is selected
-> Developed preliminary theory is used as a template with which to compare the characteristics & empirical findings from the case(s)
-> Selected cases should reflect characteristics & problems identified in the underlying theoretical propositions / conceptual framework

The level of generalization of the study results = appropriately developed preliminary theory / study design
-Mode of generalization = theory-related analytic generalization, not statistical
-Analytic generalization possible from one or more cases

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS CASE STUDY

When to use case study method?
1)    The type of research question: typically to answer questions like “how” or “why”
2)    Extent of control over behavioural events: when investigator has a little/no possibility to control the events
3)    General circumstances of the phenomenon to be studied: contemporary phenomenon in a real-life context

Case study is an empirical inquiry, in which:
-Focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context & boundaries between phenomenon and its context are not clearly evident
Suitable for studying complex social phenomena
-Procedural characteristics in the situation include: Many variables of interest; multiple sources of evidence; theoretical propositions to guide the collection and analysis of data
-Types of case studies might be: explanatory; exploratory; descriptive
-Designs can be single- or multiple-case studies
-Used methods can be qualitative, quantitative, or both

Typical criticisms towards case studies & correcting answers:
-Lack of systematic handling of data -> Systematic reporting of all evidence
-No basis for scientific generalization -> Purpose is to generalize to theoretical propositions, not to population as in statistical research
-Take too long, end up with unreadable documents -> Time limits & writing formula depend on the choices of investigators.

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ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY AND HEALTH CONDITION OF MANGROVE

 

Mangrove ecosystem is "ekoton" {transition area) a unique and rich diversity of flora and fauna. Mangrove island of Java and Bali experienced over the function as with increasing population density and the depletion of land resources. Mangrove opened for pond construction, tourism facilities as well as the timber for the needs pengarnbiian household. Transfer function leads to environmental degradation and mangrove health condition.

This study aims to see the influence of geographical conditions on h ~ kewaan mangrove and know the quality of the environment and the health condition of mangroves. This study located in the Gulf and the Gulf Banyuwedang pickpocket, Village Pejarakan, Gerokgak District, District

Buleleng. Bali province. Buian study was initiated in November 1999 until March 2000. D'methods used to retrieve data mangrove transects in the field is quadratic. Mangrove canopy by category using transects measuring 10 X 10 m2, Belta 5 X 5 m 2, and seedling 1 X 1 m2. Bay community consists of three sub Banyuwedang community and the Gulf communities Pickpocket consist on 2 sub community. Secondary data used in this study, among others: Map Topographic Sheet 1707-531 BAKOSURTANAL Goris Scale 1: 25,000 (BAKOSURTANAL, 1992), Map Digital Topographic Maps Digital Database BAKOSURTANAL Sheet No. 1. 1707-531 (BAKOSURTANAL, 1999), Bali Maps Paleo Ecology (Encarta Interactive World Atlas, 2000), Map The slope Slope Park West Bali Nasionab Skaia 1: 25,000 (TNBB, 1997) as well as data distribution

In September 1999 the coral reefs in the Gulf of Bishopscourt (Wijonamo, 1999) Mangrove community environmental quality is measured using six indicators (Lower Mississippi Valley Division, 1976 in Canter and Hill, 1981), the association of species, the closure of seedlings, canopy closure, the number of types of seedlings, the number of days inundated, and the affected area tides. This study only uses four indicators kuaiitas mangrove environment, ie associations of species, seedling closure, canopy closure, and the number of seedling species that are the result modification (dimodiikasi by: Joko Purwanto). lndeks ecological communities that use 'is lndeks Simpson dominance (C), Diversity lndeks Sharmon - Weaver (H '), and uniformity index Shannon - Weaver (E).

The health condition of mangrove mangrove leaf diiihat based morphometric (comparison leaf width to length) of a population. Measurement of the population leaves dllakukan Avicennia marina, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, and Ceriops species fagalsebagai most often found. Morphometrics of healthy mangrove leaves should be relatively constant at between individuals in a population. The constancy of the population can be seen many jumiah morphometric and morphometric variability based on coefficient values ​​in a population. More and more little morphometric population and the greater the value of the coefficient of variability of a population will become more healthy.

In this study several conclusions can be drawn. First, some parameters geogratis, such as: forms of streams, point elevation and slope of the land as well as the geological history of the island of Bali affect the existence of mangroves in the area of ​​Bishopscourt. These conditions affect pernbentukan two different mangrove zonation and ketebalanya composition, ie mangrove zonation Bay Bay Bishopscourt dm pickpocket. Second, based on quality indicators neighborhood, Gulf Banyuwedang change of condition by 31% ideal while the pickpocket Gulf by 29%. community ecology indices indicate that the Gulf Banyuwedang mengaiami changes from the ideal conditions of 36%, while the Gulf of pickpocket 12%. The values ​​above indicate that the environmental quality of mangrove Bay Bishopscourt more worse than Teiuk pickpocket. The situation is caused by land use over many pewbahan land as well as tourist and resident aktititas that occurred around the Bay Bishopscourt than the Gulf Pickpocket. Third, based on morphometric leaves, mangrove health conditions in Bishopscourt generally relatively less healthy because of morphometric leaf on the populations relatii not a constant. Mangrove populations in the Gulf Banyuwedang turnbuh have health conditions that More worse than the health condition of mangroves in the Gulf Bajui. It is caused by low Banyuwedang Gulf environment when compared with the Gulf pickpocket. Besides kualiatas environment, the location where the mangroves grow also affects the health condition of mangroves. Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata are both present in populations growing at

Avicennia marina zone while the leading edge and Ceriops fagal good health found in populations living in the inner zone. Advice that can be drawn from this study is the Park West Bali Nasionai need coordinate with the communities around Banyuwedang so as not to throw garbage into the the sea and stop the encroachment on a large scale. Need for handling of that liquid waste to be dumped into the bay waters around Bishopscourt, for example waste from of hot spring baths that can affect ecosystems around the bay, such as coral reefs, and mangroves.

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PHYSICAL CONDITION OF HEALTH CONNECTION LINGKNGAN HOUSE WITH CHILDREN EVENT PNEUMONIA in CHILDREN

Acute Respiratory Disease (ARD) is still a health problem that can not be overcome. ISPA is a disease common in children under five. Based on ARI tingkatkegawatannya divided into two, namely pneumonia and non-pneumonia. Pneumonia is an illness with symptoms of cough and shortness of breath or rapid breathing accompanied, respiratory frequency 40 times per minute or more. Incidence of pneumonia in the work area Kepahiang health centers in 2002 was 261 cases with the distribution of 28.24% (74 cases) attacking children aged less than one year and 71.76% (187 cases) affects children aged 1 -5 years. The research objective is fatherly image mengatahui mengaenai home health conditions of the physical environment (occupancy density, lighting conditions, ventilation condition, bulkhead to kitchen chimney and wall types) in relation to the incidence of pneumonia in child health centers in the region of bakita Kepahiang Kepahiang District. Kind of research that used cross sectinal study.Analisa used univariate and bivariate analysis is, by using survey methods associated with monitoring the quality of home environment. To examine the relationship with the incidence of pneumonia conditions home used chi square test with SPSS version 10.0 for Windows. The population in this study were all households with children under five in all villages in the work area Kepahiang clinic. Number of samples taken over 120 samples. From the result showed the existence of residential densities that do not meet the health requirements of 47.50%, the lighting conditions that do not meet the health requirements of 38.33%, ventilation conditions that do not meet the health requirements of 53.33%, which is not a kitchen bulkhead at 35 %, the kitchen is no smoke hole of 39.17% kind of woven bamboo walls (gedek) by 30%. From the results of bivariate analysis found a significant association between residential density (p = 0.000), lighting conditions (p = 0.000), where the bulkhead in the kitchen (p = 0.003), the condition of the smoke hole (p = 0.000), type of wall (p = 0.000 ) with the incidence of pneumonia. And that does not mean that the condition of ventilation (p = 0.376) with pneumonia. From these results disaranakan to the health center staff to improve public knowledge about the importance of a healthy home through integrated counseling (clinic staff, district officials and community leaders).

COST ANALYSIS IN ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAM INSTALLATION SUPPLY HOSPITAL ENVIRONMENT SANITATION

To address environmental health issues will cost quite a bit. Cost control problems in Economics and a method that can be applied in the field of health is a cost analysis. Purpose of cost analysis to determine how rupiahkan unit cost of each activity and the total budget administration environmental sanitation program in the department of DR Sardhito environment Installation methods used in this study is a double distribution method in the first stage dilakukandistribusi costs incurred in supporting unit to support another unit and other production units. The result is some of the costs of supporting the unit has been distributed to units of production but most are still in uni tpenunjang. Costs are still in the supporting unit is distributed to the next stage of production units, so that there is no longer left in the unit cost of support. Results of analysis of the cost of using multiple distribution methods are available on the unit cost of each unit of production. Production units have different outputs and different number of output so as to have unit costs bervaraisi costs. The unit cost of each unit of production in wastewater treatment vair USD 26 376, - per activity, solid waste management Rp 77 969 perkegiatan, water treatment Rp 16 234 per activity, sterilization of Rp 18 574 perkegiatan, seranga control Rp 46 640, - per activity, the supervision of sanitation space Rp 174 050 per activity, food sanitation control Rp 30 069, USD 641 177 linen laundering surveillance, environmental health education perkegiatan Rp 1,031,367. These unit costs are not taken into account fixed costs. Estimated total budget for the years 2000 or 2001 to be issued by the Hospital in an environmental health program Rp242.064.558. Obtained unit cost and total budget, it can be used as a reference for perenecanaan budget years to come. To suppress the high unit costs can be ISLRS revenue center offers services such as waste water treatment, medical waste and water checks.

STUDY OF SOME FACTORS DESCRIPTIVE ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH IN THE PLACE OF THE ELECTION FINAL DISPOSAL (TPA) GARBAGE

The increasing of people amount will affect the raise of solid waste amount. The solid waste that is not well managed will give bad impact to people's health condition and the decline of environmental quality. Solid waste management techique applied in TPA tompogunung Kalongan Ungaran is still using open dumping system, that is a system wich is not sanitary. The extent of settlement make the final solid waste disposal (TPA) worse, so it is necessary to relocate it. The Regional Government of Semarang Regency has prepared a new location in the village of Blondo Bawen in Bawen Sub District that is going to use sanitary landfill system. Environmental health factors is made into the consideration in giving the assessment in order to make solid waste handlling more sanitary. The goal of the research is to find out environmental health factors in final solid waste disposal selection (TPA) at Semarang Regency. The research is a kind of descriptive research using observational research method. The research objects are TPA Tompogunung and the new place of TPA Blondo. Sample taking is conducted by purposive sampling. From the sampling, the writer obtained 30 digged well, the measuringof flies dencity at five RT in Tompogunung village and one digged well nearest to the new TPA in Deres Village. The research result data is then descriptively analyzed.The result of the research indicates that the solid waste management tehnique in TPA topogunung is bad, the distance with the edge limit of settlement is 30 meters (bad category), the nearest distance with clean water resource is 50 meters (bad category), parameter treatment of ammonia, nitrit, and organic substance (bad category), there is no leachate handlling, the fkies dencity in TPA is high (17,8 perblock grill), the rate of flies dencity in Tompogunung settlement (4,85 per blockgrill), meanwhile TPA Blondo is going to use sanitary landfill system, the distance with the edge limit of nearest settlement is 500 meters (bad category), the nearest distance with clean water resource is good (>300 meters), the treatment of water chemical is in good category. The conclusion of the research is that TPA Tompogunung is entirely included in bad category, meanwhile TPA Blondo is included in medium category. The writer suggests that TPA Tompogunung should be stopped its operational and this experience should be made into an handling the solid waste to be more sanitary.